When someone is talking about the absolute truth of mathematics and declares that once you have defined 2 and +, then 2+2 must equal 4, there is a slightly glib response:
but 2+2 = 1…Mod 3
Despite this surprise, we actually all use modular arithmetic regularly, quite literally on a daily basis. When we consider six hours after 8am, the answer is not 14, but 2pm. Well you could argue for using a 24 hour clock, but no one would claim that 3am on a Tuesday morning is really 27:00 on Monday (well apparently some do, thanks to kuromagi on reddit for ref) In these cases we are not counting as we usually do, but counting on a circle mod 12 or 24. It is not hard to see that we could do this with other numbers. if we do decide that 2+1 is 0, and not 3 we are now working mod 3. In this case 2+2 is 1, as is 2*2. We can put together a small table:
| + | 0 | 1 | 2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
| 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 |
| 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 |
Showing what happens when the values for the column and row are added together. We can make the same table for multiplication:
| x | 0 | 1 | 2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
| 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
I have to admit these table are a little boring, we can make things more interesting by replacing the numbers by colours. As we are working with modular arithmetic we know that the range of numbers we will come across, lies between 0 and the value we are using for modulus, so we can map these onto some circle of colours. So work mod 151 we get a new table for addition:
Using the same system of colours we can do the same thing for multiplication:
Which is starting to get interesting. We do not need to stop there, we can produce an image where the row number is taken to the power of the column:
This looks a little jumbled, in fact it seems to have very little structure at all. This is not very useful if our goal is to make pretty images, and on this blog that is normally the goal, but it other areas it turns out to be incredibly useful. The process of modular exponentiation is an essential part of public key cryptography, one of the technologies that allows secure communication over the internet. The jumble and lack of pattern that we can see is a sign that modular exponentiation is a good method to use to jumble things up. if there were structure that could be used to help decrypt the messages!
Returning to images, lets make a big version of the multiplication image, mod 1583 (you need to click it to get the full effect, scaling the image down blurs out a lot of structure):
Another option is to make an animation. what happens as we move the modulus value:
There is plenty to study in these images, for example, the curves that can be seen are approximately hyperbolae as they occur when 
The appearance of hyperbolae perhaps implies that other curves might be possible. What happens if we consider 
Playing around a little further this image comes from 
These images are certainly worth repeating for 1583 (again the details get blurred out, so click the images to see the full detail):
To finish let us consider something even simpler. Taking the value of a square to be 
I first came across these patterns in the December Issue of notices of the AMS, I have always been surprised how little they have been explored. This post is my attempt to do a little to correct that.
Posted by gelada 
